The Agenda

Introduction

Most political action is group action.

As you become active in politics, you can expect to participate in meetings of all types. Eventually, you may be in charge of arrangements for a meeting—or preside at a meeting.

Good meetings do not just happen. They are the result of careful planning and attention to details.

It is important, therefore, that you be familiar with the types of political meetings and understand thoroughly the available tools and techniques that help make meetings most effective.

This chapter discusses types of political meetings, and the varied aspects of planning and conducting them successfully—including the fundamentals of parliamentary procedure.

Planning Effective Meetings

An old political adage says, “Never be late to a meeting, they may be talking about you.” A tremendous amount of politics is just that, talking. Some politicians insist that what people in politics say is often more important than what they do.

And much of what they say—as well as much of what they do —takes place in meetings.
The political success or failure of individuals, groups and political parties depends in large measure, therefore, on planning and conducting effective meetings.

Political meetings have many purposes. Some are held to plan projects, campaigns, publicity, strategy, or other meetings. Some are held to stimulate ideas on fresh approaches to old problems or ways to handle new problems. Decisions are made in meetings on what candidates to back, what issues to stress, what party policy should be.  Other meetings are designed to bring candidates in contact with voters or to create occasions for publicity. In fact, it would probably be impossible to find a political goal which meetings do not play some part in achieving.

Is This Meeting Necessary?

Some meetings are required by legal provisions, party rules or organization by-laws. Some are called for other good reasons. But, occasionally, some meetings—especially planning or creative-type meetings—are called to solve problems that could be solved by a couple of phone conversations, a few e-mails or by the decision of one individual.
An unnecessary meeting falls flat on its face, to the discomfort and chagrin of everyone who has wasted time attending it.

The Agenda

Even those meetings that are necessary, or desirable, must be carefully planned if they are to be successful.
The chief tool of the meeting planner is the agenda—a list of items of business to be taken up and acted on. Careful preparation of the agenda in advance helps insure that all matters to be brought before the meeting are considered. If important business is carelessly omitted at one meeting, another meeting is required. And you have a lot of unhappy people that you need to get to attend the next meeting.

A well-ordered agenda is an important tool in moving a meeting along from one item of business to the next with ease and dispatch. It allows the chairman to “pace” a meeting to assure adjournment within a reasonable time. Reviewed at the beginning of a meeting, or publicized in the meeting notice, it allows members to prepare for important discussions.
A predetermined agenda is useful even in small, informal meetings.

Interesting Programs

Many meetings combine a business session with a program, or omit business altogether, the principal attraction being a program. Frequently, the program is the same at every meeting—a principal speaker and possibly a question-and-answer period.

Here are some variations used by imaginative program chairmen:

PANEL DISCUSSION. In this format, one person acts as a moderator, and members of a panel—generally from three to five people—discuss an important subject.

The subject is carefully defined so that discussion can be kept within manageable bounds. Well in advance of the meeting, the moderator analyzes the points to be covered and assigns them to the individual panelists. The assignments are made so as to insure that all relevant points will be brought out, that no one panelist will dominate, and that all phases of the subject will receive appropriate emphasis. Frequently a panel discussion is organized at a meeting of the participants a day or two before the program is to be presented.

The moderator is the key to a successful panel discussion. They shut off long-winded panelists, keep the discussion on the track, inject occasional humor, and makes sure that all major points are covered. They keep the session within a reasonable time limit —perhaps an hour, including 15 to 20 minutes for questions from the audience.

Panel members may be either “outside” experts or local persons—the most important thing is that they be knowledgeable on at least one phase of the subject under discussion.

The best moderators make sure that the panel discussion is brought to an effective conclusion. Sometimes they make a short summary of the discussion before they thank panel members for participating; sometimes they ask each panelist to make a short summary of significant points.  Occasionally a panel is concluded by taking a “straw-vote” in the audience.

Platform Arrangements for Three Types of Meetings


“MEET THE PRESS” FORMAT. One expert or celebrity makes a five-to-ten minute presentation, is then questioned by a panel of three or four members for 20 minutes, and finally answers questions from the floor for 15 or 20 minutes.

The moderator has the same key function and problems in this type of program as in a panel discussion. Frequently, participants meet before the program to decide on the main points to be covered in the discussion, and to make sure that questions to be asked by the panel don’t overlap but do cover the subject.

The “meet-the-Press” format has been found to be particularly helpful when a scheduled speaker is known to be somewhat uninspiring. A good panel and a good moderator enliven the program as the dull speaker alone could not do. Often a poor speaker who knows their subject thoroughly will be challenged by such a format and give a performance that is otherwise unattainable.

DEBATE.   Either organization members or “outsiders” may participate in a debate. Generally, one or two persons speak for each side, because more speakers are likely to make a debate a long winded affair.
Each side is generally allotted 10 minutes per speaker with five minutes for rebuttal. Each side speaks alternately, drawing lots to determine which speaker presents his arguments first.

A good moderator is careful to call “time” on each speaker and to avoid any appearance of partiality.
Usually questions are allowed from the floor after the debate. Sometimes a “straw-vote” is taken in the audience to determine which side it favors, or which side it feels made the best presentation.

AUDIO/VISUAL PRESENTATIONS: Audio/visual presentations on political
subjects of local interest are available from the national headquarters of the two parties, and from other sources including over the internet.. The resources over the internet are almost limitless including such feature films as the 1972 movie “The Candidate” starring Robert Redford exploring the then growing importance of television on the election process and any number of documentary films, many of which were never shown in theatres.

A careful program chairman arranges for all of the necessary equipment in advance and makes sure that they are familiar with its operation or that someone will be in attendance that can provide the necessary skills. The worse type of meeting is the one where the audience is sitting through a prolonged period while someone is trying to get the computer to talk to the projector. The program chairman also views the material several days before it is to be shown to make sure that (1) it is the right presentation; (2) the contents will not be offensive to any members; and (3) all equipment is in good working order.

Experienced program chairmen have learned that “showmanship” is vital in presenting successful programs, and that varying types of format, selection of versatile moderators, and interesting speakers can work wonders in enhancing the appeal of programs in political meetings.

Time and Place

The time and location for any meeting should be carefully selected. If a small group is involved, a telephone, internet and social media canvass can be made. For larger groups, it is advisable to contact key individuals to make certain the time and place under consideration are convenient.

Generally, the time and place of a meeting are set without consulting most of those expected to attend, although care is taken to avoid competition with outstanding musical, dramatic or sporting events (local or televised) and regular meetings of the most popular lodges, clubs and other groups.

The meeting place should be small enough so those who attend don’t feel “lost” in the room. It should be easily accessible—particularly by public transportation. If possible, it should be near a well-lighted parking area and always be handicapped accessible.

Ideally, meetings, such as those of standing committees, are held at a regular time and place. This not only helps insure attendance, but frequently provides a convenient place for keeping records.

Physical Arrangements

The physical comfort of those attending a meeting is important. Efficient planning provides for adequate ventilation, proper lighting, comfortable room temperature, appropriate seating arrangement, good acoustics, and clean rest rooms. It is a given that the meeting space should be handicapped accessible.

Care should be taken to prevent such frequent annoyances as chilling drafts, microphone feedback, insufficient light on the speaker and lectern, disregard for no-smoking signs, uncomfortable chairs, defective audio/visual equipment and visual aids that are placed where they cannot be seen. When a meal precedes the meeting, planning must take into account a distracting item—”clearing the tables.”

For smaller meetings, a coffee—or coke—break can be planned as a change of pace. For larger gatherings, particularly those that run unavoidably long, a “seventh-inning stretch” or a five-minute break is important.

Promoting Attendance

Getting people to a meeting requires planning and effort, just as planning and effort are required to get people out to vote.

Advance publicity in general news media is desirable. It is usually hard to get good coverage until after an event happens, but advance publicity should be obtained, if possible.

More effective than general publicity is mailing a meeting notice to the individuals concerned.
The best way to get people to a meeting, however, is to invite them by telephone. Again there are issues presented when a current listing of phone contacts is not maintained by the party organization since many people have dropped their land lines and only have cell phones and some people who have cell phones never retrieve their messages. E-mail and social media contacts can be effective if the organization has updated records that include email and social media information on the party members and if it is understood that the person does read and respond to e-mail and social media contacts. If they never open their e-mail it does little good to leave an invitation.

Even for large meetings, smart political leaders organize special project teams (using phone, email and social media, as needed) with each member of a team being assigned 10 or 15 people to contact personally. There is no effective substitute for personal contact, i.e., a human to human conversation but in today’s modern world not everyone prefers a personal visit or a phone conversation. Good records on the party members will make the job of effective contacts easier and less time consuming.

Participating in Meetings

The newcomer to politics will quickly discover that the unwritten rules which prompt most freshman members of Congress to “say little and listen lots” are good criteria for their own conduct.

This doesn’t mean that a person extremely well-informed on a technical or specialized subject under discussion at a political gathering should refrain from speaking because they are a newcomer. Information on such matters—plus carefully-stated opinions—should be offered if the newcomer’s expertness on the subject is well-known or if there is an opportunity for them to state their qualifications.

Generally speaking, however, the political neophyte is well-advised to attend all meetings, but to keep quiet, and to avoid taking sides on issues until they know the factions or groups they want to be identified with.

The length of time it takes before each newcomer is accepted as a member of the group will vary. But when that time arrives, the individual involved will sense it and feel free to speak out more often.

Even after becoming a full-fledged member of their precinct organization committee or club, the newcomer should remember that their views, expressed at any meeting, are only contributions to the general knowledge, and that the decision lies with the group.

Insofar as possible, they should suppress any resentment and support the group’s decision when their opinions are overruled.

Effective Follow-Through

The full value of any meeting designed to strengthen a political program or achieve some political objective cannot be realized unless there is prompt and effective follow through.

At many meetings, specific assignments are made. It is imperative that these assignments be carried out—that someone be responsible for checking to see that they are carried out—or the time and effort expended to plan and make the assignments are wasted.

After every meeting, the chair should make certain they have taken whatever steps are necessary to validate all actions taken and see that those actions are properly recorded and transmitted to the proper party officials. They also should check with the secretary on  what is to go into the minutes, and furnish guidance on how actions of a controversial nature should be recorded.

At meetings where newsworthy decisions are agreed upon, information on them should be made available to the press.

Everyone who is in any way responsible for the success of a meeting should be thanked for his or her contribution. Special thanks are in order to speakers—usually by means of a letter over the signature of the organization or club president.

If a record of attendance was kept, it should be retained for guidance in forming committees, conducting registration and vote drives, and in promoting attendance at subsequent meetings.

  Kinds of Meetings

MEETINGS DIFFER in purpose and are held under various conditions. The following pages briefly describe basic types of political meetings.

I. The Small, unofficial meeting. In business, in a lodge, a PTA or politics, some of the most important decisions are made in the so-called “smoke-filled room” by leaders. They get together with other leaders in their club, committee, or area to make plans, resolve differences, and decide policy. At such meetings, club officers are decided upon, resolutions written, candidacies launched, or support of an important person obtained for a project already afoot.
Such meetings may be attended by from three to 20 people. If there are as many as 15 or 20, a smaller meeting probably preceded it.

The meeting proceeds informally, possibly without a chair, although one or two persons generally lead the discussion.

One person will probably have planned what they want discussed, and in what order, but there is usually no written, agreed-on agenda.

No written records are customarily kept of these small, informal meetings. Verbal agreements by the participants are the result—and the basis for action.

2. Precinct Workers meeting. Meetings for precinct workers are held for a variety of purposes—to plan registration and get-out-the-vote campaigns, to explain plans and procedures, or to present a training program on telephone techniques,  challenging opposition voters, handling official books at registration and polling places, and so on.

Such meetings are useful in giving workers a “team-feeling.” Telephoning and doorbell- ringing are lonely jobs; occasionally workers meet with rebuffs. Knowing others are doing the same kind of work may both hearten them and increase their sense of responsibility.

The meetings are called by the precinct leader. Invitations are usually extended by telephone and sometimes by email or social media accounts.

The meeting is usually concluded with refreshments—a “social hour.” This is important—stop serving refreshments at meetings and people may stop coming.

Checklist, for Planning Effective Meetings

  1. Is this meeting necessary?
  2. Time. Check key participants in advance to agree on convenient time and place. Avoid competition with popular events.
  3. Place. Easily reached by public transportation. Appropriate size meeting room. Convenient and safe parking. Handicapped accessibility is a must.
  4. Agenda and program. Plan order of business carefully in advance. Vary format with need.
  5. Attendance promotion. Meeting announcement. Contact key individuals by phone— use contact committee, if necessary. Advance publicity and publicity after the event, if meeting is newsworthy. “Name” speaker as drawing card and news making feature.
  6. Physical arrangements. 
    1. Sufficient ventilation but no drafts.
    2. Adequate lighting.
    3. Comfortable room temperature. On cool side before people arrive– (d) Comfortable and well-arranged chairs.
  7. Good acoustics.
  8. ) Rest rooms available.
  9. Place for coats and hats.
  10. Public address system (if necessary), operating properly.
  11. Lectern, if desired by chairman or speaker.
  12. Blackboard, if needed.
  13. Projection equipment, if required, placed and pre tested.
  14. Flags, if any, properly placed.
  15. Gavel, carafe, water, glasses.

3. Training meetings. Some training meetings are held for precinct workers by precinct leaders, but town, city, county or other political organizations may also hold meetings designed to increase the knowledge and skills of workers.  New workers may be unfamiliar with an assignment; experienced workers may need refresher courses. Instructors should be well-prepared and experienced. The meeting must move at a good pace. Training meetings are held on such subjects as:

. Good telephone techniques and techniques for other forms of contact.

  • How to make successful personal calls on voters.
  • Election law for polls workers or headquarters legal committee.
  • How to handle the procedures at the registration place or at the polls.
  • The handling of details and procedure for a large public meeting such as a rally, testimonial dinner or a big social event, making sure everybody knows their assignment, its importance and how it fits into the overall plan.
  • The use of email and social media

Subjects covered at most of these meetings involve skills as well as knowledge.

For this reason, experienced training leaders frequently have people act out situations. If telephone technique is being taught, for example, everyone makes a practice phone call, starting with experienced workers so that newcomers can learn by imitation. If contact by email or social media is going to be used a specific script is given to those attending. If the subject is work at the polls, a long table is set up and real or facsimile poll books used, as various situations are acted out. Mistakes are tactfully corrected by the leader. Even more important, good procedures are cited and commended.

The goal is to have every person take part in at least one “test-run” situation during the meeting.

People are often afflicted with “stage-fright.” The leader tries to put them at ease as much as possible, but excuses no one from participating for this reason.

  1. Committee of a larger Body.   Much of the work of a town, city or county political organization, a club, or even a legislative body may be done by committees. In the committees, programs and projects are planned, research done, resolutions drafted, all for submittal to the parent body.   Operating committees such as publicity or membership will also carry out plans after approval by the executive board or chairman of the parent body.

These committees may range in size from a few people to fifteen or twenty. They generally meet regularly at a private home, or some other convenient place, such as a restaurant, headquarters, or office.

Committee members are notified of meetings by post card, telephone calls, email or social media or any combination. . Meetings are usually informal but well-organized, with an agenda for the chair. Often one member is informally designated to act as secretary. More often, the chair will keep their own records.

Pre-organization meeting of Political Club. 
Executive Committee meeting of Club                     
Political Club meeting.
First Voters meeting.

These four types of meetings are discussed in detail in the chapter titled “Political Clubs.”

Executive Committee of Formal Party Organization.
Many state and national party committees and even some town, city and county committees have an executive committee which meets more often than the larger parent body to dispose of party business. Executive committee meetings are particularly important where the parent body is large and unwieldy.

They deal with party administrative matters such as budget, finances, endorsements, campaign organization and plans. They may be held regularly or at the occasional call of the chair.

Such meetings are often informal; though they may be formal, using strict parliamentary procedure, if there is a sharp division in the group.

Caucuses.
In a few states, Iowa in particular, and a fairly large number of towns and villages in the Northeast, the party caucus is an official party meeting, recognized by state law, local ordinance or party rules. The caucus has power to nominate or endorse a ticket, elect delegates to conventions at the next higher level, and to conduct other party business.

The qualifications for attending a political caucus of this type are that attendees must be: of voting age, a member of the political party, and a resident of the specific geographic area.

The geographic area from which a caucus draws its members may be a precinct, a municipality, or other specified local political jurisdiction. Usually the time and place of a caucus are publicly announced through the newspapers or in other ways.

As a rule, party leaders do not make great efforts to get out a large attendance, preferring to have only party regulars on hand so agreement is more easily reached.

Procedure is generally formal, using parliamentary rules. A written record is kept, which may be filed with higher party councils, government officials, and released to the news media.
The term caucus is widely used in a looser, broader sense to denote any political planning meetings such as:

The so-called “smoke-filled room” meeting.

Meetings at which convention delegates caucus to decide which candidates to
support.  Meetings of many kinds may recess during a sharp debate so that leaders of
factions may caucus to decide strategy, following which the meeting will reconvene.

Social Events.
Often, amateurs deride social meetings, saying, “What is this, a political organization or a social club?” The wise politician notes that all successful community organizations, such as churches and social clubs, find these events vital.

Social events provide a sense of group feeling and identity, offer opportunities to members to become acquainted, transact political business that can best be handled informally.  Often social events raise small amounts of money.

Attendance at social events is promoted through all publicity media as well as direct mail, email, social media and telephone. Tickets are sold by party workers to friends and neighborhood voters. People do not automatically come to these affairs. They have to be “talked up.” one good device for boosting attendance is to have precinct leaders and club members organize groups of their friends to go to the affair together. If a lesson is needed in how to “talk up” a meeting someone should be consulted who has been at the gem level (emerald, diamond) in Amway. They are the masters in knowing the tricks of promoting a meeting.

Since social events sometimes are expensive, tickets are carefully priced to cover costs.   Occasionally, a small margin of profit is obtained by holding raffles of donated merchandise. Getting these donations is an art in itself, but very worthwhile.

As at almost all political meetings, local political leaders, office-holders, candidates, and visiting leaders must be publicly introduced. To omit this feature—or to skip an important personage—is a cardinal political sin. It may even be taken as a personal affront and be the cause of long-standing enmity.

Official Party Committee Meetings.
Ward, town, city, county, state and national committees hold meetings to reach decisions on party business and to plan action programs.

Party committees on the lower levels may, for instance, vote to endorse a slate of candidates in the party primary.
Official party committee meetings are conducted in whatever manner is most expeditious; small committee meetings are usually run informally—larger ones by parliamentary procedure.

Generally, attendance is not intensively promoted.   Most members take their responsibilities seriously and are conscientious about attending meetings

These meetings are frequently closed to the press. But they often make news. In such cases a statement summarizing important actions is usually distributed to the news media after the meeting.

Testimonial Dinners.
Individuals whose performance in public or political office has won the respect of the public are often honored at testimonial dinners. Attendance is generally not difficult to promote unless the individual to be honored has not in reality endeared himself to many people.

Most party workers and leaders attend testimonial dinners, partly to pay homage to the guest of honor, partly because everybody else will be there, and partly because their absence would be noted.

Usually the guest of honor is eulogized by some local orator, who can mix praise with humor. An expensive gift, purchased from ticket sales, is customarily presented to the honored guest. The tickets are priced to cover the cost of the dinner and the gift.

From the party standpoint, these dinners have several useful by-products. The publicity is generally good, and the fine record of the guest of honor reflects credit on his or her party.   Party workers are encouraged to greater efforts with the hope that someday they will be similarly honored.

Selection of the master of ceremonies and the key speaker is important. The program must be carefully planned to provide interest, entertainment and genuine appreciation of the honored guest.

Rallies.
Rallies provide a major candidate or officeholder with an occasion to deliver an important address for publicity purposes. The address may be carried on television and radio—paid for by the party. Rallies are also useful in motivating party workers.   If handled properly, they generate enthusiasm for the candidate and the ticket. The enthusiasm with which the audience responds to the candidate is an important feature in making the show look impressive on television and sound well on radio. It is not unheard of to have a few strategically places audience members who initiate applause and cheers. It’s cheesy but it works.

Promoting attendance is often a difficult but essential factor in planning and running a successful rally. The average voter is indifferent. He would rather stay home and watch TV.  It is the party workers and their friends and neighbors who fill the hall.

The first step in promoting a rally is favorable publicity in the news media, but this can’t be depended upon to turn out a crowd.  A large corps of workers is mobilized to promote attendance.   Every precinct worker is assigned a quota of people—probably five to ten people each. (A good precinct leader should be able to turn out 15 or 20 people from their precinct.)

All political clubs are mobilized and club officers assigned responsibility for telephoning, E-mailing or making contact by social media all club members and friends, asking them to attend the rally. Transportation is often provided, and, if possible, organized motorcades from different areas converging on the hall.

           
Tickets are distributed through the party organization to workers and voters. (Professionals often stimulate attendance by marking all tickets “reserved” so the holder feels they are hard to get, and they have an especially good seat in a reserved section.) A professional rally promoter will generally have two or three times as many tickets printed as the rally hall will hold, because he or she knows that about one-third of the tickets will never reach potential users, and another third will not be used by the recipients.

Since attendance at a rally is difficult to promote, and because party leaders are almost always over-optimistic about turning out a crowd and seldom understand that careful planning is necessary to get people to attend, the speaker at many rallies faces a half-empty hall.

In every campaign, professional party leaders who should know better underestimate the difficulties in staging successful rallies. The media seems to take pleasure in highlighting events where the meeting place is cavernous and the attendees are taking up the first three rows of a 30 row hall. It may have been a good turnout for the meeting but the choice of the hall made it look like almost no one cared to attend. Every time a rally is poorly attended, an unfavorable impression is created for the party. Morale suffers. Voters get the feeling the tide is running the other way and may hasten to join it,

Platform seats are reserved for campaign committee chairs, club presidents and various other key political people who should be given recognition although they are not on the program. Seats at tables are reserved for speakers, master-of-ceremonies, and candidates.

Here is how professionals recommend obtaining a capacity attendance at a rally:

  1. Estimate realistically how many people can be reached by each precinct leader in the area, and by each political club. Don’t accept anyone’s word on how many people he or she can deliver because they will overestimate.  Plan—almost person by person— who can be persuaded to attend.
  2. Add up the list, including seats set aside for a reasonable number of news media representatives and a carefully selected number of people who should sit on the platform.
  3. Obtain a hall seating that many people. It will probably be a hall half as large as one that might have been selected without such planning. Pay no attention to those who object to the size of the hall, saying it can’t possibly seat all the people who will attend and who object that the people turned away will be angry and vote for your opponents. An overflow meeting is desired, with newspapers headlining the speaker’s popularity and reporting that crowds were turned away. Even if some of those turned away do resent it, they will be so impressed by the crowd they will feel they are backing a winner.
  4. Print tickets and get maximum distribution.
  5. Hold meetings of all workers who have a responsibility to bring people. Have them state publicly in the meeting how many people they will bring. Write the totals down as if they were important. They are.  Later, after the actual performance is checked, the people who didn’t get their quota can be tactfully questioned. This will help stimulate them to get people out on Election Day just to prove they can do it.

STAGING. The hall should be decorated. At least one band should be on hand to create an atmosphere of excitement and enthusiasm.

Timing and staging are very important. Sometimes for monster raffles, the doors open at 6:00 p.m.   Starting at 7.30 or 8:00 p.m. lesser speakers, entertainers and band music are introduced. At 9:30 a fine orator comes on and begins the real build up, working the audience up, teaching them a chant, or cheer, for use when the main speaker makes their appearance.

Promptly at 10:00 P.m. the speaker enters at the back of the hall and makes their way to the platform waving to the crowd and greeting people as he or she walks the length of the hall, with the audience chanting, “We want Blank.” This roar of the crowd and frenzied chant comes over television and radio with such impact that even viewers and listeners at home feel the excitement.

With the crowd keyed up by the preliminary speaker, by the band, and by its own enthusiasm, it will inevitably respond easily as the principal speaker—who cannot help but rise to the same level of excitement—delivers punch lines and asks rhetorical questions.

Rallies of a smaller size are run by the same rules. The only difference is in size.

Money-Raising Dinners.

Dinners designed to raise money are called $100-(or $25 or $1,000) a-plate dinners in most areas of the country. The actual dinner, of course, costs much less than the price of a ticket, the difference going into the party war chest. The principal problems in holding this kind of dinner lie in pricing the tickets correctly and putting across the idea that it is really a high-level affair.

Tickets are sold by organization workers, members of the finance committee, and sometimes by a special committee of supporters formed solely for the purpose of selling tickets.

The dinner itself is simply a well-run program generally culminating with a speech by a prominent Senator or Congressman, the Chairman of the Party’s National Committee, a Governor, a Cabinet member, the Vice President, the President, or some other party luminary who will be a drawing card, and who is a good speaker.

The program may include other speakers or entertainment prior to the principal address.

Generally the head table will include only top-level government and political figures and the finance chairman. A device with considerable merit, involves drawing three to 10 names of outstanding precinct leaders by lot and intermixing the winning leaders with other guests at the head table. This provides an incentive for precinct workers to do their best work.

Head table guests, including the precinct leaders, are introduced by the master of ceremonies.

Fund-raising dinners are usually quite successful—if well planned and executed. Many attend simply because they know everybody of importance in the party will be there. Others don’t want to be identified as one of those not present.

The Neighborhood Gathering for a Candidate.

The gathering at which a candidate meets neighborhood voters in someone’s home has increased in political importance.  This is true regardless of the fact that much political activity is focused on the ads that can be purchased by the flood of money coming into campaigns, particularly if they have some connection to an issue considered important by some organized group or wealthy individual.  Ultimately it is still all about getting the eligible voters to turn out on Election Day.  The still proven to be the best way to gather votes is the personal touch.

There is no formal program at these meetings. A housewife, a stay at home father, or for that matter a small business owner invites as many friends as possible in for a cup of tea or coffee, and to meet a candidate. Those who attend are given an opportunity to shake the hand of the candidate and to chat briefly with them.

This type of meeting received great impetus in “operation Coffee Cup”, sponsored
by the National Federation of Republican Women in the 1954 campaign, and was widely used by Ronald Reagan in the fight to restrict Medicare.   It may still have its place in today’s political climate.

This type of meeting does not replace “street-corner meetings,” trips by the candidate through supermarkets, or meetings at factory gates, but is simply a refinement of other “hand- shaking” techniques for getting votes.

Victory Party.

On election night, a victory party is usually held at party headquarters. An area tally board is set up and precinct leaders’ call in counts or hurry from the polls to the headquarters with the count from their precinct. Counts are posted on the board for each office as they come in.

Refreshments are available. A television set or radio brings in returns from other areas.

At the Victory Party the party leader, and any candidates present, thank the workers for their efforts, and praise them for their work

In every campaign, professional party leaders who should know better underestimate the difficulties in staging successful rallies. The media seems to take pleasure in highlighting events where the meeting place is cavernous and the attendees are taking up the first three rows of a 30 row hall. It may have been a good turnout for the meeting but the choice of the hall made it look like almost no one cared to attend. Every time a rally is poorly attended, an unfavorable impression is created for the party. Morale suffers. Voters get the feeling the tide is running the other way and may hasten to join it,

Platform seats are reserved for campaign committee chairs, club presidents and various other key political people who should be given recognition although they are not on the program. Seats at tables are reserved for speakers, master-of-ceremonies, and candidates.

Here is how professionals recommend obtaining a capacity attendance at a rally:

Estimate realistically how many people can be reached by each precinct leader in the area, and by each political club.

Don’t accept anyone’s word on how many people he or she can deliver because they will overestimate.  Plan—almost person by person— who can be persuaded to attend. Add up the list, including seats set aside for a reasonable number of news media representatives and a carefully selected number of people who should sit on the platform.

Obtain a hall seating that many people. It will probably be a hall half as large as one that might have been selected without such planning. Pay no attention to those who object to the size of the hall, saying it can’t possibly seat all the people who will attend and who object that the people turned away will be angry and vote for your opponents. An overflow meeting is desired, with newspapers headlining the speaker’s popularity and reporting that crowds were turned away. Even if some of those turned away do resent it, they will be so impressed by the crowd they will feel they are backing a winner. Print tickets and get maximum distribution. Hold meetings of all workers who have a responsibility to bring people. Have them state publicly in the meeting how many people they will bring. Write the totals down as if they were important. They are.  Later, after the actual performance is checked, the people who did not get their quota can be tactfully questioned. This will help stimulate them to get people out on Election Day just to prove they can do it.

Parliamentary Procedure

EVERY MEETING of any size is conducted by some form of rules. Just as boxing matches are conducted by Marquis of Queensberry rules, so meetings are conducted generally by Robert’s Rules of order (or other acceptable meeting rules) These rules are loosely followed in most meetings, but are essential to the conduct of large meetings and meetings where there is apt to be factionalism or a sharp division of opinion.

Skilled use of parliamentary procedure insures that a meeting may be conducted in an orderly fashion, that minority opinion may be expressed and that the majority be allowed to rule. Many people use the basic principles but run their meetings quite informally.

The following outline will help familiarize a chairperson with the basic motions, situations and problems involved in running a meeting, and familiarize the participant with the procedures to be followed in getting recognized and making their voice heard.

Conduct of Chairman and Members

Rules of Speaking

OBTAINING THE FLOOR—member rises, waits to be recognized, and addresses THE CHAIR: “Mr. Chairman, —”
Assigning the floor—Chair recognizes by bowing or repeating name, then sits. Only one person has the floor at a time.

A member does not remain standing while another has the floor. The chair recognizes the person who first asks for the floor after it has been relinquished.

Member states name and gives reason for requesting the floor—to make a motion; to raise a point of information; to debate a question, etc.

Procedure on Motions

  1. Member, after obtaining the floor, introduces motion: (If long or involved it should be in writing) “I move …” He may state his reasons before making the motion; or after it has been seconded; but having spoken once, may not speak again until everyone who wishes to be heard has had the opportunity to speak; except, of course to answer a question as directed by the chair.
  2. Another member SECONDS the motion. Generally all motions require a second, to indicate that more than one member is interested in discussing the question. The seconder does not, however, have to favor the motion in order to second it, and may both speak and vote against it. The person who introduces a motion may not speak against it, but may vote against it. If there is no second the chair does not recognize the motion.
  3. Chair, rising, STATES motion: “IT IS MOVED AND SECONDED THAT . . . IS THERE ANY DISCUSSION?” If there is discussion, Chair sits.
  4. General debate or discussion, if desired. Members wishing to speak follow Rules of Speaking outlined above. State position: “I favor this motion because …” or “I am opposed because …” Always address the chair. Be impersonal, keep debate germane.
  5. Chair, rising, PUTS QUESTION; “If there is no further discussion, Will

THOSE IN FAVOR OF the motion … SAY “AYE.” THOSE OPPOSED SAY “No.”

Always take negative as well as affirmative votes.


Chair announces result: THE AYES HAVE IT AND THE MOTION TO . . . IS CARRIED” or “THE NOES HAVE IT AND THE MOTION TO . . .IS LOST.” The motion is not completed until the result is announced.

If Chair is in doubt of the result of a voice vote, they may call for another, or for a show of hands, or for a standing vote:

“WILL THOSE IN FAVOR OF THE MOTION TO . . .

PLEASE STAND.” Count. “Be Seated.” “Those opposed, etc.” Always tell members what to do.

If any member is in doubt of result of voice vote, he may obtain a standing vote by calling (without need to be recognized by the Chair) for a Division of the assembly.

In case of a tie vote, the motion is lost.

President may vote whenever his vote will change the outcome. So he may vote to make a tie, or break a tie, in a 2/3 vote, etc. He always votes in a secret ballot, but when there is a roll call vote he votes last, in order that his position may not influence the votes of other members. He is never OBLIGED to vote.

Key Parliamentary Situations

I. main motion

This is a motion to take action, make a decision, or adopt a resolution. It is the standard way to bring an item of business to the floor of a meeting for consideration. MEMBER #1: Mr. Chairman, John Smith. (Wait for recognition by the Chair.) CHAIRMAN: Mr. Smith has the floor.

MEMBER #1: I move adoption of the following resolution: (I move we endorse: I move this organization appropriate five dollars for, etc.) MEMBER #2: I second the motion.

CHAIRMAN: It has been moved and seconded that … Is there discussion of the motion?
Discussion (if any)

CHAIRMAN:       The vote is on the motion to … All in favor say “aye”

All opposed say “no”.

The motion is carried (or lost).

Rules on main motion:

In order only when no other motion is pending.

Majority vote decides.

II. Amendments and Substitutes

A. Amendments. Amendments are alterations of the wording of a motion, but must be germane to the main motion. An amendment may be amended. This is called an amendment in the second degree. Amendments beyond that become so confusing they are generally ruled to be “out of order”. Amendments should be considered one at a time.

The following example is complicated. However, confusion of the amending process is so general, that close attention and thorough understanding of how amendments are handled is extremely important and will pay dividends in avoiding confusion in a formal meeting where opinion may be sharply divided. Note that the chairman always makes clear before each vote what the vote is on.

MEMBER #1: Mr. Chairman (wait to be recognized.

CHAIRMAN: Miss                   

MEMBER #1: I move we appropriate $25.00 for the purchase of a gavel for the outgoing chair.

MEMBER #2: I second

CHAIRMAN: It has been moved and seconded that we appropriate $25.00 for the purchase of a gavel for the outgoing chairman. Is there any discussion?

MEMBER #3: I know where we can obtain a fine cherry wood gavel with an engraved band for $20.00. Therefore I move to amend the motion to appropriate $20.00 rather than $25.00.

MEMBER #4: I second

CHAIRIMAN: Member #3’s amendment to appropriate $20.00 instead of $25.00 is the question. Is there discussion?

MEMBER #5: Mr. Chairman, I wish to amend member #3’s amendment to the effect that the expenditure be limited to $20.00 and I so move.

MEMBER #6: I second.

CHAIRMAN:. Member #5’s motion to amend the amendment by specifying that the expenditure be limited to $20.00 is before the house. Is there any discussion?

MEMBER #7: member #3 may have his facts correct, Mr. Chairman, but in the event the cost may be somewhat higher, I move that whoever is appointed to purchase the gavel be given discretion to go up to $25.00, if necessary.

CHAIRMAN: Your proposed amendment is out of order. The Chair will entertain amendments only in the second degree. The motion to amend by member #5 is on the floor.

MEMBER #5: I withdraw my amendment and suggest that member #7’s amendment be considered in its place.

CHAIRMAN: If there is no objection, the chair rules that member #5’s motion is withdrawn and that member #7’s motion to allow whoever purchases the gavel to spend up to $25.00 is now open for discussion.

DISCUSSION
The vote is on .. .

CHAIRMAN: All those in favor say “aye”. Those opposed, “no”. Motion is carried (or LOST.)

(Having now resolved the question of member #7’s amendment to the amendment, the motion before the house is the amendment of member #3. If member #7’s motion carried, member #3’s amendment is taken up in its amended form; if #7’s motion was defeated, #3’s amendment is taken up in its original form.)

CHAIRMAN: All those in favor of member #3’s amendment
(or, if #7’s amendment carried; all those in favor of member #3’s amendment, as amended). In favor? opposed?

The Treasurer will write a check in the requisite amount to member #1 whom I appoint to purchase the gavel.
Rules on Amending:

Has priority over main motion only. In second degree, has priority over first degree amendment and main motion.

Must be germane to the main motion.

Majority decides.

B. Substitute motion. Another form of amendment is the substitute motion. It proposes to strike out the main motion and insert in its place a new motion. The new motion may be diametrically opposed to the original motion, but will be on the same general subject.

MEMBER #1: Mr. Chairman.

CHAIRMAN: Mr. Smith

MEMBER #1: 1 move as a substitute motion that MEMBER #2:  I second.

CHAIRMAN: Discussion on the motion to substitute (discussion may be on original motion and substitute).

DISCUSSION

CHAIRMAN: All those in favor of substituting Mr. Smith’s motion for the main motion say “aye”. Opposed “no,,.
We will now discuss the adoption of the motion (the substitute motion if it carried; the original main motion if the motion to substitute was defeated).

Discussion

CHAIRMAN:
All those in favor of the motion (or the substitute motion) say “aye.” Those opposed, “no.”

Rules of Substitution:

Same as for amendments. A substitute motion should not be voted on until proponents of the original motion have been allowed to perfect it by amending.

(NOTE: Occasionally, an informal procedure will be followed whereby the proponent   of a motion may accept or reject amendments to his motion without submitting to a vote. This procedure is usually followed in cases where the proponent is a qualified authority on the subject such as a committee chairman who has moved adoption of a resolution drawn up by his committee. He will generally accept “perfecting” amendments but reject those which would change the sense of the committee’s recommendation.)

Withdrawal

A person who has proposed a motion or has proposed an amendment to a motion may decide to withdraw it. Usually such withdrawals are done on a “without objection” basis—that is, one member objecting blocks the withdrawal and a motion to withdraw must be voted on. Generally, the withdrawal is for an obviously good reason and members of the meeting will concede without objection the right of the person who made the motion to withdraw it.

Motion to Postpone

There are motions to postpone to another definite time, to postpone indefinitely, to object to consideration, to table, and make a special order for a succeeding meeting. All of these are aimed at removing the pending motion from the floor and from further consideration. The one in most general use is the motion to table.

MEMBER #1: Mr. Chairman (wait for recognition).

CHAIRMAN: Mr. Member #1

MEMBER #1: I move we table the motion (or lay the motion on the table).

MEMBER #2:  I second.

No DEBATE

CHAIRMAN: The vote is on the motion to table. All in favor? All opposed?

Motion is carried (or defeated).

Rules Governing motion to Table:

Has priority over all subsidiary motions (such as amendments).

Not debatable. Cannot be amended.

Tabling of main motion carries with it any pending subsidiary motion, such as an amendment.

Majority vote decides.

WHEN USED: Often this will be used to avoid taking a position on a motion when many members doubt the wisdom of definite action on the question, or when they feel it would be inappropriate to take action at the time. Opponents of a main motion will sometimes move to table because quite often the undecided people will support a motion to table since it will save them from taking a position.

While many people have the impression that tabling a motion disposes of it permanently, a member may subsequently move to “take up from the table” any tabled motion and consider it.

Limiting Debate

Discussion of a motion in which there is strong interest or feeling may run to unnecessary lengths, causing boredom among some members and delaying the program or other business to come before the meeting.  Debate should be adequate, but not interminable. There are three ways to limit debate:

Ruling by the Chair. The chairman may suggest at the outset, after a motion has been seconded, that discussion will be limited to ten minutes and no more than four speakers on a side, or some other such time and participation limits.

Or, when a discussion has proceeded sufficiently he may just state: “All right, two more speakers and then we vote.” After the two speakers he asks for the “ayes” and “nays”. The chairman must be cautious, however, not to appear to be stifling discussion. (See comments on page 38: The

Authority of the Chairman.)

Motion from the Floor. A member may move that debate on the main motion have a speaker and/or time limit. Such motion has priority over the main motion and will be voted on. If the motion carries, the debate is then limited as specified in the motion.

Rules Governing motion to limit Debate: Non-debatable.

Requires a two-thirds vote. Can be amended, but only in respect to amount of time or number of speakers. Yields to a motion to table.

MEMBER #1: I move the previous question.

MEMBER #2: 1 second.

No DEBATE

CHAIRMAN: All those in favor of terminating debate by moving the question say “aye”.  Opposed, “no”.
(If defeated, debate continues. If carried, Chairman proceeds to the voting without further discussion).

CHAIRMAN: The motion to move the question is carried. We will now vote on the main motion (state motion or identify it). All in favor say “aye”. Opposed, ‘’no’’.

Rules on moving the Question:

Requires Two-thirds vote.

Not debatable. Cannot be amended. Has priority over all debatable motions. Yields to motion to table.

Although authorities generally agree that the procedure is disorderly and seldom justified, debate is sometimes limited informally by a number of people calling out “Vote!

Vote!”, or “Call the question.”

Referral to Committee

Occasionally matters arise in which it becomes obvious that a proposed action is dubious because the facts on which it is based are inadequate. Usually, in cases of this type, the matter may be referred to committee for study and subsequent reporting with the full background necessary for debate and decision.

A proposed action may also be referred to committee in cases where the leadership wishes to dispose of it, knowing that the committee it is referred to will never bring back a report, or will bring back an adverse report. Such action may not seem democratic, but in politics, what is said is often more important than what is done.  Likewise, what is not said can be vital. A given resolution may be popular in a group at large, but the leadership will bury it because they know that taking this position publicly as an organization will injure the party’s chances to win votes from a significant minority in the next election.

Moving referral is handled in the same manner as a main motion except that a motion to refer has priority over a main motion and motions to amend. It may not be tabled, but the main motion to which it refers may be tabled while the motion to refer is pending.

Points of Privilege, Information and Order

Any member may interrupt a meeting to obtain vital information, to ask for relief from conditions of annoyance, or to request that proper form in conducting the meeting be observed.

Personal or General Privilege. This covers such items as asking that the door be closed, the windows be opened, the heat be turned up, etc. It is sometimes used if a person has been attacked personally on the floor, and could not otherwise answer the charges in the normal course of procedure. Point of Information. A person may rise to ask for a restatement of a motion, repetition of other information relevant to the motion on the floor, or to ask a question of another speaker. Such questions are addressed to the chair, and the answer directed to the chair as well.

  1. Point of Information. A person may rise to ask for a restatement of a motion, repetition of other information relevant to the motion on the floor, or to ask a question of another speaker. Such questions are addressed to the chair, and the answer directed to the chair as well.

Parliamentary Inquiry. A member may rise to inquire when it would be in order for him to bring up a subject, to ask the basis for a ruling by the chair, to inquire what the business before the assembly is at the moment, or other questions of procedure.

Point of order. A member who believes that the meeting is proceeding out of order may rise to ask correction of the order. An inexperienced chairman can be literally forced out of the chair by experienced parliamentarians calling him to order.

MEMBER: Point of order, Mr. Chairman.

CHAIRMAN: State your point.

MEMBER: The speaker rose to a point of personal privilege, but he is talking on the question. I ask that you rule him out of order and proceed to the vote since the previous question has been moved.

CHAIRMAN: Your point is well taken. We will proceed to the vote. All in favor
.. or,…

MEMBER: Point of order, Mr. Chairman.

CHAIRMAN: State your point.

MEMBER: There are two motions and three amendments apparently being considered simultaneously. Will the
Chairman please rule what business is now on the floor and inform us on how we will proceed?

CHAIRMAN: Your point is well taken. The motion on the floor is … Will members please direct their remarks to that motion or to suggesting amendments to it.

Rules Applying to Points of Privilege, Order, and Information:

May interrupt a member who has the floor. Sometimes this must be done forcefully.  Member does not have to be recognized. He may proceed to state his point without recognition by the chair.

Does not require a second.

Member having the floor must yield when interrupted.

Appealing the Ruling of the Chair

When the chair makes a ruling, any member of the assembly may appeal the ruling if he thinks it unfair or incorrect procedure.

CHAIRMAN: I am ruling the motion out of order. We will proceed to consideration of __________.

MEMBER: Mr. Chairman, I believe that motion is appropriate and in order. (States reasons.) I therefore appeal the ruling of the chair.

CHAIRMAN: The ruling of the chair has been appealed. (The chairman may go on briefly to state the reason for his ruling.) The question is: Shall the decision of the chair be sustained? Those in favor of sustaining the chair say “aye”. Those opposed, “no”.

Rules Governing Appeals from the Ruling of the Chair: Appeal must be made immediately following the ruling in question. 

The member who appeals may interrupt another who has the floor. Majority vote decides.

Debatable if the ruling of the chair applies to a debatable motion.

Not debatable if ruling applies to an undebatable motion such as a motion to table.

If appeal is debatable, motions to close debate (move the question) or to table are in order. Tabling or closing debate governs only debate on the appeal, but does not affect any pending main motion.

Nominations and Elections

All may be made from floor

A nominating Committee is usually considered the best.  The membership should be canvassed for suggestions. The nominating committee must obtain the consent of the nominated to run and to serve if elected. May be candidates themselves, but it is usually best to put people on committee who are not officer prospects.

Chairman of nominating committee reads report. Presiding officer asks for further nominations from the floor for each office. Do not move the nominations be closed until all offices have been thoroughly canvassed for additional candidates by the chair—who may then say “Are there any further nominations for ANY office? Hearing none, the chair declares the nominations closed.”

3. Elections should be held by secret ballot if there is a contest to avoid the necessity for members to show publicly their preference as to individuals.

Voting

Voting decides all questions ultimately. There are several ways of voting.

Voice Vote. All in favor say “aye”, all opposed say “no”. The chair rules on whether the “ayes” or the “nays” predominate and the question is so decided.

Division of the House. This is a show of hands, or a vote by standing, so that an accurate count can be made.

Roll-Call. The secretary calls the roll of the members and each member present votes “aye”, “no”, or simply “present”, as his name is called.

Secret Ballot. Secret ballot forms should be prepared in advance and only one ballot issued per qualified member. Proxies are generally not allowed unless specified by the constitution and by-laws. Tellers must be appointed to distribute, collect and count ballots.

Usually, division, roll-call and secret ballot are considered as alternatives to an indecisive voice vote. In this case the chairman may rule that a more accurate form of voting is required. Or, if a member demands a roll-call or division, his request is generally acceded to. If it is not acceded to, he may, of course, move that the vote be taken by a division of the house, in which case the proposal is voted on as a main motion.

The Agenda

The agenda is a list of items to be covered in a meeting in the order in which they are listed.  Most meetings have a standard agenda, as follows:

A. Call to order. The chairman raps the gavel three times and says, “The meeting will please come to order.”

Reading and Approval of the minutes of the previous meeting. Reading of minutes may be dispensed with by the chair subject to objection. If there is objection, a vote may be taken. They may be dispensed with by a motion to dispense, passed by a majority. Minutes are the official record and must be approved to be valid. If minutes are dispensed with, they must either be read and approved at a subsequent meeting, or approved unread, or approved as made available in printed form. Opportunity must be given in either case to correct the minutes before approval.

CHAIRMAN: We will dispense with the reading of the minutes of the last meeting since copies are available on your seats. Are there any additions or corrections?

MEMBER: I would like to correct the second sentence in the fourth paragraph to read as follows: … (with corrections) .. .
CHAIRMAN: Without objection, the Secretary will correct the minutes accordingly. (If there is objection, a vote is taken). All those in favor of accepting the minutes as printed and corrected say “aye”.  Opposed, “no”.

Reports of officers. Generally there is no need to vote on these reports. They are usually for information only. The secretary incorporates them in the minutes and when the minutes are approved at the subsequent meeting, they become part of the permanent record. If, however, an officer’s report calls for action, he may move approval of the report, or move that the meeting take the recommended action. Such motions are treated as a main motion.

Reports of Committees, Standing and Special. Same procedure as for officers’ reports.

    Old or unfinished Business. Any items from previous meeting which had not been decided, or motions related to business covered in a previous meeting should be brought up here.

      New Business. This is the part of the meeting when members are free to bring up any recommendations they may have for action. Announcements of general interest are also permitted.
Any business not covered under another heading is generally allowable under new business. It is wise and courteous for members to notify the chair in advance if they have an item to bring up. The chairman appreciates being informed in advance for planning purposes and can advise the member when he may best introduce his business. This also lessens the likelihood of a member missing his opportunity to introduce his business at a time when it is in order.

Adjournment. The motion to adjourn is moved like any other motion.

This motion is privileged over all other motions except the motion to fix the time for the next meeting.

Not debatable.

Majority decides the vote.

The chair may inform the meeting of any pending business requiring attention before taking a vote on the motion.

SPECIFIED AGENDA: Some groups follow a procedure which limits the scope of the meeting to specific items listed on an agenda. Where such a procedure is followed, new items can be added to the agenda —after it has once been approved—only by unanimous consent.

CHAIRMAN: Will the meeting please come to order. This meeting will take up the following agenda:
Minutes of the previous meeting.

Reports of officers.

Reports of committees.

A motion to take up from the table the question of having a spring dance, which as you recall, was tabled at our last meeting.

A resolution of condolence to Mr. Smith, who recently lost his uncle. A resolution endorsing the party’s slate for the coming election.

Certain informational announcements by members.

Speaker for this evening—Mr. George Johnson, Assistant Secretary of our State Labor Department.

Adjournment.

Are there any additions to this agenda by the members?

MEMBER: I have a resolution to present criticizing the city government’s handling of the parking situation.

CHAIRMAN: All in favor of adding this item to the agenda say “aye”. Those opposed, “NO”

The motion is carried (or defeated). All in favor of adopting the agenda as read (or as amended) will please signify by saying “aye”. Those opposed, “no”. We will proceed to the first item on the agenda.

The procedures for using an itemized agenda may seem unnecessarily rigid and formal.  For most meetings they are. However, in large groups where there is a disciplined, able minority bent on asserting their will, the specific agenda is useful. One of the techniques used by such groups is to bring up motion after motion to keep the meeting in session until late at night. People will begin to drift out and the size of the assembly dwindles until the disciplined minority becomes a majority. When their leader ascertains this has occurred, they then get down to the serious business of taking the actions they want. This method was used in the past by communists to take over civic groups and turn them into communist fronts. The communists had, and have, no monopoly on this technique, however. Any disciplined group that knows what it wants can use it. Agreement on the agenda at the beginning of a meeting rules out this possibility at the start and allows the majority to prevail.

Another kind of agenda is a special agenda. If a special meeting of a group is called, the purpose of the meeting is stated in the call or announcement of the meeting. The notice of the meeting will read that the meeting is called for the purpose of considering specific actions. These actions are listed in the notice of the meeting.

At such a special meeting, no changes can be made in the agenda except by unanimous consent. There is no approval of the agenda or opportunity to change it, except by unanimous consent.

Again, the special meeting with its stated agenda will allow the majority to prevail with dispatch and eliminate unnecessary wrangling and delay.

The Authority of the Chairman or chairwoman Psychologically, the chair carries with it prestige and authority. The chair also has definite powers. The chairman must exercise their authority, both psychological and real in a fair, but firm manner. Being the chair of a spirited meeting is like riding a horse. If the rider is strong and experienced, they and the horse can cover a lot of ground. If they lose control or antagonize the horse, they are in real trouble.

If the chair of a meeting is partial, he or she can do much to bring about victory for their side. They may fail to recognize opposition speakers. They may recognize a member of his or her side first to make a vital motion. They may rule maneuvers by the opposition out of order and overlook the parliamentary misdeeds of his or her side. They may call for a vote immediately after a member of their side has made a very strong case, temporarily swaying undecided members.

When going into a contested meeting, “ring-wise” politicians will fight hard to obtain a chair partial to their side or at least a fair chairman or chairwoman. If the chair is already selected and known to be partisan, the opposition may request that they disqualify themselves and turn the chair over to an acceptable substitute temporarily. If they refuse, or if they appoint another unacceptable chairman, the opposition may ride the chair very hard in debate and protest every apparent partiality.

A good chairperson will develop a “sense of the house.” If they sense general agreement on a measure they may shortcut voting by simply saying, “without objection, it is so ordered,” and go on to the next item of business. Sensing frustration, they may order a matter referred to a committee for study without waiting for a motion or taking a vote.

When they do this, they must reflect a general sentiment of the members or they will be tripped up by an appeal or a point of order.

A chairman or chairwoman functions best when they use the authority of the chair firmly, is fair, has an eye to conducting business with dispatch, keeps the members informed on what they are debating and injects a note of humor from time to time.

It is particularly important that the chair meticulously check with the secretary after each motion to be sure they have the motion correct and understands what disposition has been made of it. Minutes are the official record, and the correct wording of a motion can sometimes never be recorded unless it is agreed on at the time it is debated and voted on.

The chair’s authority is usually sufficient to maintain order. There are some occasions in which physical power is necessary to maintain order. In these cases, one or more sergeant-at- arms who will be responsive to the chairman can be appointed.

It is wise for the chairperson to keep a tabbed copy of a parliamentary procedure reference book at hand during meetings. Such a reference is not a substitute for parliamentary knowledge and skill, only an aid to it.

Use of Parliamentarian Occasionally the chair will employ a member of the group as a parliamentarian to advise them on knotty questions. The parliamentarian should be not only conversant with parliamentary procedure, but also with the constitution and by-laws of the body, since these articles may specify certain procedures which are exceptions to usual procedure or are not covered in the standard Rules of  order.

The chair is not bound by the advice of their parliamentarian. The parliamentarian should not be asked to rule on a question.